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Energy companies have a long history of Arctic activity, starting with the discovery of oil in Siberia by the Soviet Union in 1962. Arctic Competition – Part One... By identifying key players, quantifying relative influence, and assessing the competitive landscape, FP Analytics breaks down complex foreign policy issues by mapping out spheres of influence and the risks and opportunities these topics present for Insiders. Retrieved September 14, 2020, from, Jüris, F. (2020, July 3). The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 19.7 in) over the frozen ocean. Retrieved September 9, 2020, from, Staalsen, A. Climate change turns Arctic into strategic, economic hotspot. Feature: (2020, February 28). The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea.[35][36]. The apex predators in the Arctic Ocean - Marine mammals such as seals, whales, and polar bears, prey upon fish. The Emerging Arctic. However, the Arctic Council is only one of many regional governance structures—including the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, the Nordic Council, and the Baltic Sea Council—and international treaties governing the Arctic. It is the world’s second-largest producer of natural gas (after the U.S.) and Europe’s largest natural gas supplier, with fourteen European countries importing more than 50 percent of their natural gas from Russia. Retrieved September 21, 2020, from, Desjardins, J. The Arctic Circle is roughly 16,000 km (9,900 mi) long. Countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are: Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland (territory of the Kingdom of Denmark), Canada and the United States. [8], The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600 around the Bering Strait, the Thule people being the prehistoric ancestors of the Inuit who now live in Northern Labrador. In the depth range of 150–900 metres (490–2,950 feet) is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. As new actors such as China establish their presence in the region, nations are forging fresh political and commercial partnerships across a rapidly changing geopolitical landscape. While a patchwork governance framework of international standards, laws, and treaties has proven effective at resolving small-scale Arctic disputes to date, it is ill-equipped to mitigate a major escalation or confrontation between great powers. The U.S. Geological Survey issues a comprehensive appraisal of Arctic’s untapped energy resources. While other Asian countries such as Japan and South Korea have also invested in Russian natural gas, the closer economic ties between China and Russia are the focus of growing geopolitical concern, heightening energy security risks among European importers and U.S. natural gas exporters. The Power of Siberia gas pipeline began directly supplying China with Russian natural gas reserves in 2019 and is a key point of cooperation between the two countries in the Arctic. Iceland’s economy was one of the hardest hit during the 2008 financial crisis, and the lack of offshore oil development has slowed its recovery. As the volume of cargo transiting through the NSR increases, it is likely to attract more investment from nations beyond China. Coast Guard)&text=And with the fiscal 2021,a Congressional Research Service report. The Large-Scale Projects Act. In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water, and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density. [69] Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019, a mass invasion of polar bears into the archipelago of Novaya Zemlya caused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Given its heavy dependence on the Arctic for its own future power supply—not to mention its status as a global supplier, Russia has the most to gain or lose from Arctic economic development. Retrieved September 14, 2020, from, Nilsen, T. (2018, April 24). The admittance of Asian countries—China, Japan, South Korea, India, and Singapore—as Observer states to the Arctic Council in 2013 significantly expanded the geopolitical landscape of the Arctic. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-huawei-europe/as-britain-bans-huawei-u-s-pressure-mounts-on-europe-to-follow-suit-idUSKCN24F1XG, http://www.svs.is/static/files/images/pdf_files/ahdr/English_version/AHDR_chp_2.pdf, https://www.cfr.org/interactives/emerging-arctic#!/emerging-arctic, https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-china-insights.pdf. However, its economic power is waning, as the low price of oil and the shale revolution continue to take their tolls. https://sinopsis.cz/en/arctic-digital-silk-road/#:~:text=The Finnish project called Arctic,Northern Sea Route (NSR). Chinese company General Nice Group purchased a Greenland iron ore mine in 2015. NY Times. There are several ports and harbors around the Arctic Ocean[16]. The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is the international legal framework governing offshore activities in the Arctic Ocean. Politico. China Raises Threat of Rare-Earths Cutoff to U.S. Foreign Policy. Among the Arctic states, the U.S. is the only member that has not officially ratified UNCLOS, so it is excluded from submitting territorial claims of its continental shelf to the U.N. The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional phase of the larger Caledonian orogeny in the Paleozoic. Retrieved September 16, 2020, from, Hillman, J.E. Retrieved September 7, 2020, from, Salama, V., Ballhaus, R., Restuccia, A., & Bender, M.C. The Barents Observer. Supporting the middle class at home and reasserting leadership abroad may be mutually exclusive—especially in Asia. Council on Foreign Relations. Washington Post. Three new icebreakers are now being commissioned; once completed, they will compliment two existing icebreakers (which are over forty years old and not suitable for most Arctic missions). For example, multibillion-dollar energy investments from Cairn Energy, in 2014, and Shell, in 2017, yielded no oil—and a precipitous fall in the price of oil since 2014 has made this type of high-cost, high-risk investment increasingly unattractive. Additionally, China has invested extensively in mining and energy, reflecting efforts to strengthen and diversify its resource supply chains. (2020, April 23). [38] This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline.[40]. The ocean covers almost three-quarters of the Earth’s surface and is one of the most important animal habitats. https://www.clingendael.org/pub/2020/presence-before-power/4-greenland-what-is-china-doing-there-and-why/, https://www.visualcapitalist.com/the-race-for-arctic-domination/, https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/russia-releases-official-plans-for-the-northern-sea-route, https://www.icelandreview.com/politics/in-focus-iceland-and-the-arctic/. Development of the NSR is key to Russia’s control of the Arctic in the future and will potentially re-route trade from Europe to China through Russian waters. Other major shipping companies CMA CGM, Hapag-Loyd, and MSC have. Once completed, the submarine cable between Finland and China will allow Chinese monitoring along the NSR seabed, similar to China’s existing monitoring capabilities in the South China Sea. MegaFon is the Russian telecom company that is working with Internet providers to deliver services from the submarine cable along the NSR. 1–46, Rep.). China’s Scientists Are the New Kids on the Arctic Block. The Amerasia Basin may have opened first, with the Chulkchi Borderland moved along to the northeast by transform faults. So far, its investments in the Arctic have reflected these priorities. It has pursued multilateral cooperation with Russia through international and regional organizations such as the UN and the Arctic Council, and it has collaborated with the U.S. and other NATO allies to deter increased Russian military presence in the Arctic. Active Polar Icebreakers: 6 (1 under construction). Forget U.S. sanctions over arms deals. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%. Russia’s strategic geographic position allows it to supply natural gas directly to Europe and Asia, which it is leveraging to develop two major gas pipelines—the Nord Stream 2 (connecting to Europe) and the Power of Siberia (connecting to China). Arctic Governance Is Not Designed to Effectively Mitigate Great Power Competition. (2019, April 9). It spans an area of approximately 14,060,000 km 2 and is also known as the coldest of all the oceans. Form and Function: The Future of the Arctic Council. Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. When oil prices peaked in 2008, it appeared that a race to secure oil resources in the Arctic was inevitable. Nevertheless, Chinese investment is critical to the continued development of the region. Despite U.S. ambitions, it lacks the processing capabilities to refine rare earths domestically and relies on China for 80 percent of its rare earth supply, with China continuing to wield the valuable resources as geostrategic weapons. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf. Arctic Competition – Part One These primary consumers form an important link between the primary producers and higher trophic levels. [1] It spans an area of approximately 14,060,000 km2 and is also known as the coldest of all the oceans. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent. In January of 2020, Russian president Vladimir Putin laid out an ambitious decree that aims to triple shipping through the Arctic from 31.5 million tons of cargo in 2019 to 90 million by 2030. Retrieved September 15, 2020, from, World Wildlife Fund. Foreign Policy. Climate change has impacted the Arctic more than any other region in the world, with changes in surface temperatures increasing between two and three degrees over the last fifty years.

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